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Had tended to begin with what farmer participatory research calls `outsider knowledge' e.g. technologies developed by professional researchers to solve a particular technical problem ; and see if this was of use to the fisherfolk. In general. the studies had concluded that this type of knowledge was inappropriate to set bagnet communities, at least at the present time. A key reason for this conclusion was the apparent absence of suitable institutional mechanisms to use such knowledge effectively and for the general good. To an extent we felt that our work would be used to see whether the institutions that housed indigenous knowledge would be able to accommodate outsider knowledge. However, we wanted to take this a step further. As described earlier, our research would be unable to bring natural scientists in contact with local communities as much as we would have liked. We also did not feel that we had enough experience to try and represent indigenous knowledge systems to natural scientists. Therefore. in addition to understanding the institutional setting of indigenous knowledge we wanted to create an environment where indigenous and outsider knowledge could be brought together, at least once the initial study had been completed. If asked, we would probably have described the creation of the above interface between outsider and indigenous knowledge systems as a form of empowerment - allowing local people to meet on an equal footing with natural scientists. If pushed further, we would have said that community participation is inherently empowering because it increases people's ability to identify and gain access to assistance. But for many theorists empowerment has far broader implications than just the relationship between researchers and local communities: it relates to promoting an environment where people analyse. question and ultimately resist the underlying reasons for their poverty Cromwell and Wiggins, 1993 ; . To state the case so boldly in the context of a technical co-operation project would be considered inappropriate. Poverty alleviation may be a stated aim of most donors and development organizations, but that is not supposed to be achieved by encouraging grassroots level upheaval in friendly countries. Furthermore. some of Bangladesh's largest NGOs e.g. PROSHIKA and BRAC ; which began by emphasizing empowerment, have emphasized the importance of economic development as a prerequisite for other activities such as consciousness raising. Not all NGOs agree with this. and one of the project's most successful NGO partners in India insists that economic and non-economic activities are two sides of the same empowerment coin Blowfield and Kamila, 1995 ; . However, we chose to focus our research on individual communities and thereby effectively to ignore the wider political aspects of empowerment - something that would become evident as our study progressed. 2.5 Limits to participation Apart from theoretical considerations, there were practical issues affecting community participation in the research. Community e.xpectations Mikkelsen 1995 ; says that participatory study techniques are being made use of in all phases of the project cycle, but we were concerned that they would blur the line that planners draw between the phases. What planners and donors might see as project appraisal can easily merge into what communities see as implementation and the promise of external support. There was no doubt in our minds that fostering participation would create expectations amongst communities, but neither the communities nor we were in a position ultimately to decide whether there would be an implementation stage. All we could ensure was that through participation communities would have an opportunity to argue their case, but our experiences on other projects told us it is long way from a fishing community to Dhaka to London or wherever the ultimate power to accept or refuse ideas resides. The extent of participation The nature of development funding and the accountability of donors to their own constituencies e.g. tax payers ; mean that it is unrealistic to expect communities to be the ultimate decision-makers. But even within these constraints there are different forms that participation can take. Much of the work on assessing degrees of participation has been done in a research context see, for Instance, Biggs, 1989 ; , but Paul 1986 ; gives four.
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Basco, V.E.: Tamoxifen prophylaxis. Lancet 1: 263, 1986. Baulieu, E.E.: RU486 as an antiprogesterone steroid. From receptor to contragestion and beyond. JAMA 262: 1808, 1989. Belchetz, P.E.: Hormonal treatment of postmenopausal women. N. Engl. J. Med. 330: 1062, 1994. BNF, No. 35 March 1998 ; , BMJ R.PSGB, London, 1998 ; . Bronner, M.H. ve di.: Estroegenprogesteron therapy for bleeding gastrointestinal telengiectasias in chronic renal failure. Ann. Int. Med. 105: 371, 1986. Benson R.C. Ed. ; : Current Obstetric and Gynecologic Diagnosis and Treatment, 5. Bask , Lange, Los Altos, Calif, 1984. Boston Collaborative Drug Surveillance Program: Surgically confirmed gallbladder disease, venous tromboembolism and breast tumors in relation to postmenopausal estrogen therapy. N. Engl. J. Med. 290: 15, 1974. BMA RPSGB: British National Formulary No. 35, Mart, 1998. Bremmer, W.J.: Inhibin from hypothesis to clinical application. N. Engl. J. Med. 321: 826, 1989. Carr, B.R.: Hormone replacement after hysterectomy. JAMA 261: 447, 1989. Clark, J.H. ve di.: Regulation of oestrogen receptor replication by progesterone. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 286: 161, 1977. Cuzick, J. ve di.: The prevention of breast cancer. Lancet 1. 83, 1986. Cobleigh, M.A. ve di.: Estrojen replacement therapy in breast cancer survivors. A time for change. JAMA 272: 540, 1994. Cohen, J. ve R. Merger: Place du cyclofenyl parmi les inducters. Therapie 25. 1, 1970. Daly, M.J. ve di.: Endocrine therapy of breast cancer. Pharmaceut. J. 237: 694, 1986. Das, C. ve K.J. Catt: Antifertility actions of the progesterone antagonist RU 486 include direct inhibition of placental hormone secretion. Lancet 2: 599, 1987. Delmas, P.D.: Treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Lancet 359: 2018, 2002. Dickson, R.B. ve C.R. Clark: Estrogen receptors in the male. Arch. Androl, 7: 205, 1981. Dorrington, J. ve R.E. GoreLangton. Prolactin inhibits oestrogen synthesis in the ovary. Nature 290: 600, 1981. Dyer, G.L. ve di.: Doserelated changes in vaginal cytology after topical conjugated equine estrogens. Brit. Med. J. 284: 989, 1982. Early Breast Cancer Trialists Collaborative Group: Systemic treatment of early cancer by hormonal cytotoxic and immune therapy: 133 randomized trials involving 31000 recoveries and 24000 deaths among 75000 women. Lancet 339: 1, 1992. Editorial: Sex hormones and gynaecological cancar. Brit. Med. J. 284: 1657, 1982. Editorial: Sex hormones and liver cancer. Lab. Investigation 46: 352, 1982. Elwood, J.M. Estrogens and endometrial cancer: some answers and some further questions. Can. Med. Ass. J. 124: 1129, 1981.
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In ABCSG Trial 6, postmenopausal women with endocrine-responsive early stage breast cancer were randomized to receive initial adjuvant therapy with tamoxifen alone or with tamoxifen plus aminoglutethimide for the first 2 years of adjuvant therapy ; , a first-generation AI. The addition of aminoglutethimide to the tamoxifen regimen was not found to improve prognoses for patients in the trial.6 All study patients with no recurrences by the end of their 5-year adjuvant treatment were re-randomized into ABCSG Trial 6a, to receive either anastrozole or no treatment for a further 3 years Figure 1 ; . The re-randomization for ABCSG Trial 6a was performed centrally at the ABCSG randomization center, Vienna, and confirmed by the trial centers following patient consent at the time of the ABCSG Trial 6 completion visit. Almost half of the patients from ABCSG Trial 6 consented to continue into ABCSG Trial 6a. 856 patients were re-randomized to ABCSG Trial 6a. Of these, 406 47.4% ; patients had received 5 years of adjuvant tamoxifen plus aminoglutethimide and 450 52.6% ; had received 5 years of adjuvant tamoxifen alone during ABCSG Trial 6. At re-randomization, patients had a median age of 68.1 years range 51.8-85.5 ; , and a median follow-up of 60.4 months. Disease characteristics for re-randomized patients are shown in Table 1. Median follow-up for patients in the ABCSG Trial 6a was 60 months. At the time of analysis, all patients had completed treatment. Patients treated with anastrozole exhibited a significantly reduced risk of recurrence for local, contralateral, and metastatic disease hazard ratio [HR] 0.64; 95% confidence intervals [CI] 0.412, 0.999; p 0.0477 ; compared with patients receiving no treatment. The incidence of all recurrences is shown in Table 2.
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And another four libraries process 80 to 89 percent in this way. Cataloging in the Library of Congress system, as a series, was the second most popular method to process these documents with one library doing 95 percent of the collection this way, and another four libraries classifying at least part of the collection as a series in the Library of Congress system. A few unique methods of classification were mentioned by other libraries. One library has 100percent of the collection uncataloged, and shelved by series within the issuing bodies. Another library has 90 percent of the collection classified as a series in the Dewey Decimal classification system. The importance of obtaining series information for USDA publications is indicated by the fact that only one of the responding libraries has 90 percent of heir collection classified as monographs in the Library of Congress system. Most libraries have 0 to 9 percent of their USDA publications classified as monographs. Other methods of handling the materials, especially the microfiche publications, include AS1 classification and National Technical Information Service NTIS ; accession numbers. A question concerning the ways in which USDA publications are accessed did not elicit any surprise responses. The standard agricultural tools of AGRICOLAIBibliography of Agriculture and the Monthly Catalog of Government Publications were the most often mentioned items. Other tools included OCLC and RLIN, American Statistics Index, local catalogs, USDA Bibliographies, inhouse serial records, Government Reports Announcements and Index, and documents department card catalogs. The variety and number of tools mentioned by each library indicates the need to use a wide number of bibliographic tools in order to be as complete as possible in a search for USDA information. As was expected, most libraries house their USDA publications in the government documents section of the library. Indeed, 48 percent house 90 to 100 percent of their collection there and another 21 percent house 80 to 89 percent in that section. The second most popular location for USDA publications was the general stacks. One library houses 95 percent.
Throughout the 3-year quality improvement project, the hospital's sedation committee met at monthly intervals to discuss issues pertaining to the implementation of the sedation program and to suggest modifications. Such modifications included the addition of a pain scale, the addition of provider "timeouts" ie, break in clinical care to verify patient identity and correct patient for procedure ; , patient identification, surgical procedure side-site verification ie, verify correct site for procedure during the time-out ; , and providing all patients with supplemental oxygen during sedation and amprenavir.
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15. Heckenkamp J, Leszynski D, Schiereck J, Kung J, LaMuraglia GM. Different effects of photodynamic therapy and -irradiation on vascular smooth muscle cells and matrix: implications for inhibiting restenosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1999; 19: 2154 Young SW, Woodburn KW, Wright M, Mody TD, Fan Q, Sessler JL, Dow WC, Miller RA. Lutetium texaphyrin PCI-0123 ; : a near-infrared, water-soluble photosensitizer. Photochem Photobiol. 1996; 63: 892 Yamaguchi A, Woodburn KW, Hayase M, Robbins R. Reduction of vein graft disease using photodynamic therapy with motexafin lutetium in a rodent isograft model. Circulation. 2000; 102 suppl III ; : III-275III-280. 18. Perkins C, Kim CN, Fang G, Bhalla KN. Arsenic induces apoptosis of multidrug-resistant human myeloid leukemia cells that express Bcr-Abl or overexpress MDR, MRP, Bcl-2 or Bcl-xL. Blood. 2000; 95: 1014 Koopman G, Reutelingsperger CPM, Kuijten GAM, Keehnen RMJ, Pals ST, van Oers MHJ. Annexin-V for flow cytometric detection of phosphatidyl expression on B cells undergoing apoptosis. Blood. 1994; 84: 14151420. Cossarizza A, Franceschi C, Monti D, Salvioli S, Bellesia E, Rivabene R, Biondo L, Rainaldi G, Tinari A, Malorni W. Protective effect of N-acetylcysteine in tumor necrosis factor- induced apoptosis in U937 cells: the role of mitochondria. Exp Cell Res. 1995; 220: 232240. Yang J, Liu X, Bhalla K, Naekyung Kim C, Ibrado AM, Cai J, Peng T-I, Jones DP, Wang X. Prevention of apoptosis by Bcl-2: release of cytochrome c from mitochondria blocked. Science. 1997; 275: 1129 Diaz M, Frei B, Vita JA, Keaney JF Jr. Antioxidants and atherosclerotic heart disease. N Engl J Med. 1997; 337: 408 Ma XL, Lopez BL, Liu GL, Christopher TA, Gao F, Guo Y, Feuerstein GZ, Ruffolo J, Barone FC, Yue TL. Hypercholesterolemia impairs a detoxification mechanism against peroxynitrite and renders the vascular tissue more susceptible to oxidative injury. Circ Res. 1997; 80: 894 Meister A. Glutathione deficiency produced by inhibition of its synthesis, and its reversal, applications in research and therapy. Pharmacol Ther. 1991; 51: 155194. Furuke K, Bloom ET. Redox-sensitive events in Fas-induced apoptosis in human NK cells include ceramide generation and protein tyrosine dephosphorylation. Int Immunol. 1998; 10: 12611272. Liu X, Kim CN, Yang J, Jemmerson R, Wang X. Induction of apoptotic program in cell-free extracts: requirement for dATP and cytochrome c. Cell. 1996; 86: 147157. Buttke TM, Sandstrom PA. Oxidative stress as a mediator of apoptosis. Immunol Today. 1994; 15: 710. Johnson TM, Yu ZX, Ferrans VJ, Lowenstein RA, Finkel T. Reactive oxygen species are downstream mediators of p53-dependent apoptosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996; 93: 11848 Zamzami N, Marchetti P, Castedo M, Decaudin D, Macho A, Hirsch T, Susin SA, Petit PX, Mignotte B, Kroemer G. Sequential reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential and generation of reactive oxygen species in early programmed cell death. J Exp Med. 1995; 182: 367377. Irani K. Oxidant signaling in vascular cell growth, death, and survival. Circ Res. 2000; 87: 179 Devary Y, Rosette C, DiDonato JA, Karin M. NF-kappa B activation by ultraviolet light not dependent on a nuclear signal. Science. 1993; 261: 14421445. Manome Y, Datta R, Taneja N, Shafman T, Bump E, Hass R, Weischselbaum R, Kuje D. Coinduction of c-jun gene expression and internucleosomal DNA fragmentation by ionizing radiation. Biochemistry. 1993; 32: 1060710613.
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1Presented at the workshop entitled "Nutrition in Pdiatrie HIV Infection: Setting the Research Agenda" held in Bethesda, MD on September 28-29, 1995. The workshop was sponsored by the Office of AIDS Research of the Natioal Institutes of Health, The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Insti tute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Insti tute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Mental Health, Food and Drug Administration, Pediatrie AIDS Foundation, National Dairy Council, Sandoz Nutrition Corporation, Bistol-Meyers Squibb Company, Clintec Nutrition Company, Ross Products Division-Abbott Laboratories, Serono Laboratories, Inc., and the American Institute of Nutrition. Workshop proceedings are pub lished as a supplement to The Journal of Nutrition. Guest Editors for this supplement publication were Daniel J. Raiten and John M. Talbolt, Life Sciences Research Office, Federation of American Socie ties for Experimental Biology, Bethesda, MD and anagrelide.
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Clinical studies for treatment of hormone-dependent breast cancer 117 ; . Santen et al. extensively evaluated the kinetic and hormonal effects of aminoglutethimide in breast cancer and first proposed aromatase inhibition as the primary mechanism of action of aminoglutethimide therapy 118 ; . Numerous clinical trials performed since the early 1980's have demonstrated the clinical efficacy of combination therapy of aminoglutethimide with corticosteroid replacement 96, 119 ; in treatment of hormone-dependent breast cancer. However, side effects of lethargy and anaprox.
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Lonning, P. E., Kvinnsland, S., Jahren, G. 1984 ; Aminoglutethimide and warfarin. A new important drug interaction. Cancer. Chemother. Pharmacol.; 12, 1012. Kvinssland, S., Lonning, P. E., Ueland, P. M. 1986 ; Aminoglutethimide as an inducer of microsomal enzymes. Part 1: Pharmacological aspects. Breast. Cancer Res. Treat.; 7 suppl. ; , S7376. Cuddy, P. G., Loftus, L. S. 1986 ; Influence of mitotane on the hypoprothrombinemic effect of warfarin. South Med. J.; 79, 387388. Desmond, P. V., Mashford, M. L., Harman, P. J. et al. 1984 ; Decreased oral warfarin clearance after ranitidine and cimetidine. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther.; 35, 338341. Choonara, I. A. et al., 1986 ; Stereoselective interaction between the R enantiomer of warfarin and cimetidine. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol.; 21, 271277. Sax, M. J., Randolph, W. C., Peace, K. E. et al. 1987 ; Effect of two cimetidine regimens on prothrombin time and warfarin pharmacokinetics during long-term warfarin therapy. Clin. Pharm.; 6, 492495. Toon, S., Hopkins, K. J., Garstan, F. M. et al. 1987 ; Comparative effects of ranitidine and cimetidine on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of warfarin in man. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol.; 32, 165172. Serlin, M. J., Sibeon, R. G., Breckenridge, A. M. 1981 ; Lack of effect of ranitidine on warfarin action. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol.; 2, 791794. Baciewicz, A. M., Morgan, P. J. 1990 ; Ranitidine-warfarin interaction. Ann. Intern. Med.; 112, 7677. Lewis, J. H. 1986 ; Summary of the 30th Meeting of the Food and Drug Administration Gastrointestinal Drugs Advisory Committee. Am. J. Gastroenterol.; 81, 495498. De Lepeleire, I., Van Hecken, A., Verbesselt, R. et al. 1990 ; Lack of interaction between famotidine and warfarin. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Res.; 10, 167171. Cournot, A., Berlin, I., Sallord, J. C. et al. 1988 ; Lack of interaction between nizatidine and warfarin during chronic administration. J. Clin. Pharmacol.; 28, 11201122. Sutfin, T., Balmer, K., Bostrom, H. et al. 1989 ; Stereoselective interaction of omeprazole with warfarin in healthy men. Ther. Drug. Monit.; 11, 176184. Duursema, L. et al. 1995 ; Lack of effect of pantoprazole on the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of warfarin. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol.; 39, 700703. Heimark, L. D., Wienkers, L., Kunze, K. et al. 1992 ; The mechanism of the interaction between amiodarone and warfarin in humans. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics; 51, 398407. Kates, R. E., Yee, Y. G., Kirsten, E. B. 1987 ; Interaction between warfarin and propafenone in healthy volunteer subjects. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther.; 42, 305311. Nenci, G. G., Agnelli, G., Berrentini, M. 1981 ; Biphasic sulphinpyrazone-warfarin interaction. British Medical Journal; 282, 13611362. Toon, S., Low, L. K., Gibaldi, M. et al. 1986 ; The warfarinsulfinpyrazone interaction: stereochemical considerations. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther.; 39, 1524. Avery, G. S., 1973 ; Check-list of potential clinically important interactions. Drugs; 5, 187211. Koch-Weser, J., Sellers, E. M. 1971 ; Drug interactions with coumarin anticoagulants. N. Engl. J. Med.; 285, 547558. Pond, S. M., Graham, G. G., Wade, D. N. et al. 1975 ; The effects of allopurinol and clofibrate on the elimination of coumarin anticoagulants in man. Aust. N. Z. J. Med.; 5, 324328. Rawlins, M. D., Smith, S. E. 1973 ; Influence of allopurinol on drug metabolism in man. Br. J. Pharmacol.; 48, 693698. Vesell, E. S., Passananti, G. T., Greene, F. E. 1970 ; Impairment of drug metabolism in man by allopurinol and nortriptyline. N. Engl. J. Med.; 283, 14841488. Lewis, R. J. et al. 1974 ; Warfarin: stereochemical aspects of its metabolism and the interaction with phenylbutazone. Journal of Clinical Investigation; 53, 16071617. Powell-Jackson, P. R. 1977 ; Interaction between azapropazone and warfarin. Br. Med. J.; 1, 11931194 and aminoglutethimide.
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